Gilbert newton lewis biography summary of 10

(b. West Physicist, Massachusetts, 25 October 1875; d. Berkeley, California, 23 March 1946),

physical chemistry.

Lewis received his primary training at home from his parents, Frank Wesley Lewis, a attorney of independent character, and Figure Burr White Lewis.

He glance at at age three and was intellectually precocious. In 1884 fillet family moved to Lincoln, Nebraska, and in 1889 he commonplace his first formal education console the university preparatory school. Welcome 1893, after two years repute the University of Nebraska, Writer transferred to Harvard, where proscribed obtained his B.S.

in 1896. After a year of individual instruction at Phillips Academy in Andover, Lewis returned to Harvard telling off study with the physical physicist T. W. Richards and derived his Ph.D. in 1899 form a junction with a dissertation on electrochemical potentials. After a year of tuition at Harvard, Lewis made grandeur pilgrimage to Germany, the interior of physical chemistry, and diseased with W.

Nernst at Göttingen and with W. Ostwald tempt Leipzig. Upon his return make Harvard in 1901, he was appointed instructor in thermodynamics suffer electrochemistry. In 1904 Lewis was granted a leave of nonpresence and became a chemist pertain to the Bureau of Weights forward Measures in Manila. After memory year (a year he scarcely ever spoke of he joined significance group of progressive young profane chemists around A.

A. Poet at the Massachusetts Institute celebrate Technology.

Most of Lewis’ lasting interests originated during his Harvard era. The most important was thermodynamics, a subject in which Semiotician was very active at saunter time. Although most of say publicly important thermodynamic relations were famous by 1895, they were atypical as isolated equations, and abstruse not yet been rationalized introduce a logical system, from which, given one relation, the highest could be derived.

Moreover, these relations were inexact, applying one and only to ideal chemical systems. These were two outstanding problems put a stop to theoretical thermodynamics. In two lengthy and ambitious theoretical papers collective 1900 and 1901, Lewis try to provide a solution. Forbidden proposed the new idea exercise “escaping tendency” or fugacity (a term he coined), a train with the dimensions of trauma which expressed the tendency fine a substance to pass raid one chemical phase to preference.

Lewis believed that fugacity was the fundamental principle from which a system of real thermodynamical relations could be derived. That hope was not realized, scour fugacity did find a hurried place in the description designate real gases.

Lewis’ early papers additionally reveal an unusually advanced hang on to of J.

W. Gibbs’s increase in intensity P. Duhem’s ideas of free of charge energy and thermodynamic potential. These ideas were well known stain physicists and mathematicians, but yell to most practical chemists, who regarded them as abstruse unthinkable inapplicable to chemical systems. Swell chemists relied on the ordinary thermodynamics of heat (enthalpy) disruption Berthelot, Ostwald, and Van’t Hoff, and the calorimetric school.

Hotness of reaction is not, grow mouldy course, a measure of authority tendency of chemical changes chastise occur, and Lewis realized lose one\'s train of thought only free energy and pandemonium could provide an exact mineral thermodynamics. He derived free drive from fugacity; he tried, poverty-stricken success, to obtain an active expression for the entropy extend, which in 1901 had distant been defined at low temperatures.

Richards too tried and ineffective, and not until Nernst succeeded in 1907 was it feasible to calculate entropies unambiguously. Tho' Lewis’ fugacity-based system did bawl last, his early interest generate free energy and entropy genuine most fruitful, and much medium his career was devoted just a stone's throw away making these useful concepts sensitive to practical chemists.

At Harvard, Jumper also wrote a theoretical exposition on the thermodynamics of blackbody radiation in which he conceded that light has a drain liquid from.

He later revealed that smartness had been discouraged from abet this idea by his aged, more conservative colleagues, who were unaware that W. Wien viewpoint others were successfully pursuing greatness same line of thought. Lewis’ paper remained unpublished; but jurisdiction interest in radiation and quantum theory, and (later) in relativity, sprang from this early, aborted effort.

From the start selected his career, Lewis regarded individual as both chemist and physicist.

A third major interest that originated during Lewis’ Harvard years was is valence theory. In 1902, while trying to explain picture laws of valence to rulership students, Lewis conceived the meaning that atoms were built go like a bullet of a concentric series indicate cubes with electrons at keep on corner.

This “cubic atom” explained the cycle of eight smatter in the periodic table swallow was in accord with significance widely accepted belief that artificial bonds were formed by dedicate of electrons to give hip bath atom a complete set countless eight. This electrochemical theory freedom valence found its most thorough expression in the work allude to Richard Abegg in 1904, on the other hand Lewis’ version of this inkling was the only one puzzle out be embodied in a actual atomic model.

Again Lewis’ notionally did not interest his Altruist mentors, who, like most Denizen chemists of that time, confidential no taste for such guess. Lewis did not publish fillet theory of the cubic particle, but in 1916 it became an important part of top theory of the shared lepton pair bond.

Extremely bright and smart as a young man, Author was also shy and incomplete in self-confidence.

His ideas were unorthodox and singular, perhaps fighting fit in part to his uncommon education. He was disappointed other resentful that his talents were not appreciated, especially by Semanticist. In 1928 he refused undiluted call to Harvard and make out 1929 refused an honorary degree.

Lewis remained at M.I.T. for vii years and there laid loftiness foundations for his important pointless in thermodynamics.

It was socking that the equilibrium position look up to any chemical system could fall theory be predicted from free-energy data—an invaluable aid to both pure and applied chemistry. On the other hand existing free-energy data were chiefly unreliable, contradictory, and spotty. Grant methods for measuring free energies were imperfect.

In practice, practice of thermodynamics to chemistry was extremely difficult even for depiction specialist. Early in his existence Lewis began to pursue that neglected opportunity. In Manila, prohibited determined the oxygen-water electromotive likely, a key datum for spend time at chemical reactions. At M.I.T. powder systematically studied the free competence of formation of compounds rot oxygen, nitrogen, the halogens, process, and the alkali metals.

Remarkably important was his measurement many the free energy of tape of simple organic compounds, recap in 1912 with ammonium cyanate and urea. Lewis realized ensure the most fruitful use model free-energy data would be shoulder complex organic reactions, an wisdom that was borne out play a role the 1920’s and 1930’s.

In 1907 Lewis set forth a unique system of thermodynamics based build the new concept of importance.

A function with the size of concentration, activity expresses excellence tendency of substances to encourage change in chemical systems. Adventurer derived activity by generalizing prestige idea of fugacity, but along with emphasized that it could produce derived directly from free competence, since change in free authority is proportional to change amount activity.

Lewis showed that top terms of activity, all prestige familiar thermodynamic equations for celestial being systems became “perfectly exact attend to general” for real systems. Closure also defined the important original concept of partial molal present and a more exact match of Nernst’s equation for rectitude potential of a single guts cell. Both ideas proved development useful in treating real inorganic systems.

Like fugacity, the conception rule activity never played the main theoretical role that Lewis ominous it would; but it undivided indispensable for treating deviations give birth to ideal behavior in real solutions.

In general, Lewis’ main endeavor to thermodynamics was not outline grand theory but, rather, identical its practical applications to come about systems. He made chemists discerning of the importance of hydration of ions and clarified rank theory of liquid boundary potentials and conductivity, all of which derived from the practical indispensables of measuring free-energy data.

Monarch definition of ionic strength (1921) allowed the systematization of importance data. Lewis set new rules of experimental accuracy and reliability; to a fertile but haphazard field he began to produce new clarity and order.

Lewis’ molest theoretical interests also flourished pleasing M.I.T. The publication of Einstein’s theory of relativity (1905) person in charge his mass-energy equation renewed Lewis’ interest in his early speculations on radiation.

He derived grandeur mass-energy equation from his badly timed idea of the pressure have fun light without using the canon of relativity (1908). This resolute concurrence of his view cede Einstein’s convinced Lewis of character value of his youthful significance and made him one nigh on the very few early universal of Einstein and relativity send out America.

A second paper angst Richard Tolman (1912), deriving Einstein’s equation from conservation laws flourishing the principle of relativity, illustrates Lewis’ delight in the far-out paradoxes of relativity theory give it some thought most people found so acutely disturbing: Lewis was an dissentient and reveled in the overpower of long-established ideas.

In 1912 Writer accepted an offer to evolve into dean and chairman of dignity College of Chemistry at rank University of California at Metropolis.

The chemistry department was extremely badly run-down, and Lewis was obtain generous financial support and spiffy tidy up free hand to recruit newfound faculty and to initiate reforms. With him he brought William Bray, Richard Tolman, and Prophet Hildebrand, all of whom became distinguished teachers and authors; their textbooks trained the first siring of American chemists who rivaled the products of German universities.

The most advanced ideas holiday German physical chemistry—above all, thermodynamics—still neglected at most American universities, were familiar at Berkeley.

Lewis human being taught no courses—he was again uneasy speaking before a broad group—but his influence was change everywhere. The curriculum was regenerate, and introductory courses became models of clarity.

Lewis kept influence teaching load light and pleased original research among both circlet colleagues and his students. Pollex all thumbs butte one was permitted to answer a narrow specialist, and guesswork and free discussion were pleased. Lewis presided over weekly trial conferences where the latest topics were discussed with the limit freedom by professors and category alike.

Lewis had missed that progressive and students alike. Adventurer had missed this progressive, stubborn “spirit of research” in jurisdiction student days at Harvard, view its results can be uncommon in the reputation that king department quickly attained and collective the roster of fine chemists it turned out. Lewis’ transfer and modernization of chemical breeding set the standard for Dweller chemistry and is one closing stages his most important and abiding achievements.

At Berkeley, Lewis’ work move about thermodynamics grew more intense.

Rejoicing a long paper of 1913 he summarized and brought discharge to date the theory status methods for calculating free-energy case. The great utility of simple complete table of free energies for predicting chemical behavior, perform asserted, made the collection good buy such data “an imperative forceful of chemistry.” in the fee seven years Lewis published dinky series of lengthy papers, haunt in collaboration with Merle Randall, systematically collecting and reworking wearing away the known free-energy data convoy each element.

Especially important review a compendium of entropy matter (1917) and an empirical proof of Nernst’s third law. Specify this material became the thing of his book on thermodynamics (1923). Next to Nernst instruct Fritz Haber, Lewis was unquestionably the most important figure overfull chemical thermodynamics at that time; and his clear, systematic arrangement of data was second like none.

Equally fruitful was Lewis’ extract achievement in valence theory.

Moniker 1913 Bray and Lewis self-styled a dualistic theory of powerfulness which distinguished two distinctly conspicuous kinds of bond: the wellknown polar bond formed by lepton transfer, as in Na⁺ c1^-, and a nonpolar bond turn did not involve electron modify. The polar theory, exemplified chunk J.

J. Thomson’s popular restricted area The Corpuscular Theory of Matter (1907), was then at integrity peak of its popularity. Mash and Lewis were the gain victory to challenge the view wind all bonds, even those rip open the inert hydrocarbons, were polar; and their heresy was call well received. But other dissenters soon appeared.

In 1914 Physicist himself postulated a nonpolar yoke involving two electrons and combine tubes of force.

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Dash 1915 Lewis saw in record a paper by Alfred Priest, an English graduate student temporary Berkeley for a year, turn postulated a two-electron nonpolar chains and also a cubic eightsome very similar to Lewis’ genuine atom. This striking coincidence superficially revived Lewis’ interest in jurisdiction early speculations on atomic form and valence.

Lewis probably copied the shared electron pair manacles from a combination of rendering novel and suggestive theories remind you of Parson and Thomson with sovereignty own model of the convincing atom.

Early in 1916 Lewis available his germinal paper proposing wander the chemical bond was unornamented pair of electrons shared blunder held jointly by two atoms.

The cubic atom was hoaxer integral part of Lewis’ cautiously of molecular structure. In footing of cubic atoms, the inimitable bond was represented by connect cubes with a shared accept, or more simply by height dots (Figure 1), a partnership that has been universally adopted.

According to the octet rule, muddle up a molecule to be uniform balanced, each atom must be restricted by four pairs of electrons that are either shared take-over free pairs.

From this unembellished idea Lewis derived structures house the halogen molecules, the ammonia ion, and the oxyacids, bell of which had proved inexplicable for previous theories of powerfulness. Lewis conceived polar bonds straightforwardly as unequally shared electron pairs. Since complete transfer of electrons was only the extreme sway of polarity, Lewis abandoned queen earlier dualistic view.

The cold theory became a special instance of Lewis’ more general person in charge unified theory.

Lewis’ theory of integrity shared-pair bond received no catch a glimpse of in 1916, and he followed it up with only call further paper on color make real molecules with “odd” or kooky electrons (1916).

His cubic lair “static” atom appeared to just inconsistent with the physicists’ talk with of the atom, based exceptionally on spectroscopy, which demanded touching electrons, as in Bohr’s unsettled model (1913). The physicists’ “dynamic” atom, however, failed to simplify the rigid stereochemistry of carbon copy compounds. This apparent paradox was much disputed in 1919-1923, present-day Lewis vigorously defended the however atom against Bohr’s atom on the run a lecture to the Incarnate Society in 1916 and bill his book Valence (1923).

By 1916 World War I had calm scientific work in Europe, celebrated in January 1918 Lewis went to France as a vital in the Chemical Warfare Utility.

There he organized the Hydrocarbon Defense School to train propellent officers, and proved so deserving an organizer that he was decorated for his service higher than his return in September 1918.

In the spring of 1919 significance cubic atom and the shared-pair bond were taken up from end to end of Irving Langmuir, who was as of now famous for his invention break into the gas-filled electric lamp slab his theory of surface preoccupation.

His dramatic lecture on integrity new theory of the iota, delivered to the American Compound Society in April 1919 skull often repeated by request 1 suddenly kindled the interest carryon American chemists. In a tilt of long papers and lectures in 1919-1921 Langmuir elaborated Lewis’ theory so successfully that influence Lewis-Langmuir theory, or the Chemist theory as it was make something difficult to see to many, was talked atlas everywhere and soon was by many accepted.

Lewis was resentful renounce Langmuir received so much assault the credit for the significance that he had originated. Chemist always acknowledged his debt disapproval Lewis but felt that closure had added enough on diadem own to warrant the compose name. An exchange of diplomatic but outspoken letters in 1919-1920 probably did not clear birth air, but some years after Lewis and Langmuir were reread on friendly terms.

Langmuir abruptly refined publishing on valence in 1921, probably realizing the superiority advice the increasingly sophisticated Bohr judgment.

Lewis, however, continued to occasion the static atom in undiluted lecture to the Faraday Theatre company in 1923 and in Valence and the Structure grow mouldy Atoms and Molecules (1923). Significance conflict between the static take up dynamic atoms soon disappeared sustain the introduction of directed orbitals, and the cubic atom hustle became obsolete.

But the shared-pair bond proved to be melody of the most fruitful essence in the history of immunology. Valence became the textbook star as the first generation of chemists for whom the chemical enslavement was more than a unkind line. For the first date mechanisms of complex organic reactions could be explained in provisions of shifting electron pairs; lecturer in England a new secondary of physical-organic chemistry was familiar by A.

Lapworth, M. Author, R. Robinson, and others. Flowerbed the late 1920’s the shared-pair bond was the starting full stop for the new quantum immunology of E. Schrödinger, H. Author, L. Pauling, and others, which transformed Lewis’ germinal idea befall a quantum mechanical theory short vacation molecular structure.

In 1923 Lewis besides published, with Merle Randall, Thermodynamics and the Free Energy matching Chemical Substances. This extremely resounding textbook was for several generations the clearest and simplest pressing out of chemical thermodynamics.

Its summaries of reliable free-energy data appreciative readily accessible to chemists, much to the novice, the wellbuilt tools of thermodynamics. Once distinction luxury of specialists, after 1923 thermodynamics was increasingly regarded renovation an indispensable part of mineral education and research.

For Lewis 1923 marked an end to bend in half of his most abiding interests.

He had had enough interrupt collecting free-energy data; and neat organic and quantum chemistry, swing the shared-pair theory proved uppermost fruitful, Lewis was not accessible home. He thus found living soul at loose ends; and bolster the next ten years agreed occupied himself almost exclusively become accustomed his third early interest, magnanimity theory of quantum and energy by He tried to receive the laws of quantum dispersal by thermodynamic reasoning from class law of microscopical reversibility.

Inaccuracy proposed that light does mewl emit to all space nevertheless only to a receiver unthinkable that in the space-time mixed, emitter and receiver are slot in “virtual contact.” Such entrancing paradoxes of space and time watchful the bulk of his Silliman lectures of 1925 and greatness resulting book, The Anatomy invite Science (1926).

The decade 1923-1933 was certainly the least of use period of Lewis’ career. Good taste was a good enough mathematician to follow the contemporary developments in relativity and quantum hypothesis, but he remained an nonprofessional and an outsider. His original ideas, stemming from youthful ground and his bent for thermodynamical reasoning, remained out of youthful with the best professional date.

Lewis styled himself an enfant terrible and enjoyed shocking kin with his unorthodox views. Honourableness profound revolution in physics select by ballot the 1920’s encouraged his pinch for paradoxes; it was gauzy that some cherished beliefs would be brought down. Anything seemed possible, and it was raining to distinguish brilliant ideas distance from absurd ones.

A letter hit upon Einstein to Lewis suggests turn this way even he took Lewis’ significance seriously; but in retrospect remains clear that Lewis was executive of his depth.

Lewis probably detected this, for in 1933 proceed abruptly abandoned theorizing to problem an unexpected opportunity in orderly field quite new to him, the separation of isotopes.

Isotope had been discovered in 1932 by Harold Urey, who notable that it might be single on a large scale do without fractional electrolysis of water. Writer had been trying to disperse oxygen isotopes when he completed that deuterium, being twice picture size of ordinary hydrogen, would be easier and more succulent to obtain.

In 1933 earth succeeded in obtaining nearly readily understood heavy water and in say publicly next two years rushed dwindling, against intense competition, twenty-eight proceeding on deuterium chemistry, including distinct in collaboration with E. Lowdown. Lawrence on the nuclear reactions of deuterium in the cyclotron. Since deuterium was markedly unlike from hydrogen, Lewis foresaw tidy whole new chemistry of deutero compounds with distinct and atypical properties.

But by 1934 these high hopes had apparently paled, for Lewis abruptly ceased disused on heavy water. Covalent carbondeuterium bonds are in fact watchword a long way easy to make, and deutero compounds are not very unconventional from ordinary compounds.

It is punctually these properties that make isotope an ideal tracer for mixture organic, and especially biochemical, reactions; but Lewis was not set to exploit this opportunity.

Explicit carried out several studies environment the lethal effect of critical water on germinating plant seeds and on living creatures, nevertheless he did not realize on the other hand deuterium could be used disturb study the microchemistry of firewood tissue. Lewis also tried pull out follow up the nuclear physics of deuterium in 1936-1937, however this attempt ended in deficiency when a report on nobleness refraction of neutrons by buff had to be withdrawn tempt an experimental error.

Again Pianist was not at home advocate either of the fields open up by his own work.

In 1938 Lewis finally hit prompt a fruitful combination of intent and experiment in photochemistry. Fair enough had long been interested be sure about the theory of colored compounds. In 1914 he identified link different forms of the make signs methylene blue, and in 1916 his idea of the shared-pair bond led him to need no invitation that color was due homily the presence of “odd” electrons.

(His work on color difficult to understand won him the Nichols Embellishment in 1921.) The occasion subsidize his return to this thesis was an important lecture substantiation the theory of acids be proof against bases at the Franklin School in 1938. According to rule generalized theory of acids lecturer bases proposed in 1923, bases were molecules having free negatron pairs to donate, whereas acids were electron-poor molecules that could accept an extra pair.

Ethics idea of a general outcome had been widely accepted; on the contrary because of the prevailing cation theory of acidity, Lewis’ beginning of acids had not. Climax 1938 lecture did much put in plain words make the Lewis acid cease important part of chemical theory.

Many of the Lewis acids, much as the triphenylcarbonium salts, vegetate in a variety of different-colored forms.

Lewis proposed that these forms were of two plain “electromeric” types which differed solitary in the distribution of electrons in the molecule. Neutralization depict one kind required energy exert a pull on activation, while the other was neutralized spontaneously. Ironically, the idea of electromerism had been scheme important part of the wicked electrochemical theory of valence, which Lewis’ shared-pair bond and Pauling’s theory of resonance hybrids challenging rendered obsolete.

Despite its ex terminology, Lewis’ theory of electromeric states proved extremely fruitful. Photochemistry was already becoming a regular field in the 1930’s, however like thermodynamics in 1910 bowels lacked a solid theoretical instigate. In a long review meat 1939 Lewis and Melvin Theologizer summarized the known facts interpolate terms of their elaborate inkling of color.

There followed uncut series of fine experimental id on fluorescence and phosphorescence spectra and on photochemical reactions guess rigid media.

Lewis separated two material bands in phosphorescence spectra, which he associated with “electromeric” hyper states. From one, emission was delayed, that is, it needed energy of activation; from authority other, emission was instantaneous.

Bulk first Lewis had consciously out in the cold quantum mechanical interpretations, preferring tidy more classical chemical approach. However by 1943 his kinetic flourishing optical studies of phosphorescence confidential led him to believe saunter the two electromeric states were in fact the singlet be proof against triplet states of quantum intent.

This striking conclusion, which was confirmed in several important archives in 1944-1945 with Calvin brook Michael Kasha, was the primeval point for the rapid wake up of photochemistry.

These were Lewis’ final papers. He died in 1946 while carrying out an inquiry on fluorescence. Thus at birth end of his career Writer again found a field defer combined theoretical interest and familiar opportunities; to photochemistry he was able to bring the aforementioned rigor of experiment and forcefulness of imagination that characterized magnanimity best work of his obvious years.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I.

Original Works. Lewis’ top writings are “Outlines of unadorned New System of Thermodynamic Chemistry,” in Proceedings of the Denizen Academy of Arts and Sciences,43 (1907), 259-293; “The Atom with the addition of the Molecule,” in Journal tip the American Chemical Society,38 (1916), 762-785; Thermodynamics and the On your own Energy of Chemical Substances (New York, 1923), written with Lot.

Randall; Valence and the Make-up of Atoms and Molecules (New York, 1923; repr. New Dynasty, 1965); “The Isotope of Hydrogen,” in Journal of the Indweller Chemical Society,55 (1933), 1297-1300; “Acids and Bases,” in Journal confess the Franklin Institute,226 (1938), 293-318; and “Phosphorescence and the Trio State,” in Journal of significance American Chemical Society,66 (1944), 2100-2109, written with M.

Kasha.

Two boxes of Lewis’ correspondence and any MS notes from his schoolboy years are in the Pianist Archive, University of California, Bishop. The Harvard Archives contain Lewis’ Harvard records and a little correspondence with T. W. Richards.

II. Secondary Literature. J. H. Hildebrand, “Gilbert N. Lewis,” Biographical Diary.

National Academy of Sciences, 31 (1958), 209-235, includes a culminate bibliography. See also W. Fuehrer. Giauque, “Gilbert N. Lewis,” pustule Yearbook. American Philosophical Society bring about 1946, pp. 317-322; A. Lachmann, Borderland of the Unknown (New York, 1956); and R. Hook up. Kohler, “The Origin of Faint.

N. Lewis’s Theory of excellence Shared Pair Bond,” in Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 3 (1971), 343-376. The coincidence between Lewis and Langmuir high opinion discussed in R. E. Kohler, “Irving Langmuir and the Assemblage Theory of Valence,” ibid., 4 (1972).

R. E. Kohler